1-2-3 Agreement

There are lot of talks about 1 2 3 Agreement between India & USA and it
almost led to the topple of Central Government. In this mail I am trying
to
explain the commercial & technical aspects relating to this Agreement
which
I have read and sharing with you.

What is 123 Agreement?

This is called 123 Agreement because this comes under USA's Atomic Power
Act Section 123.

Let's see how India's (Indians?) Sovereinty & Independence are
pledged...

(1) After this Agreement USA will supply all fuel, machinery / equipment
&
technology to India for producing Nuclear Power.

(2) All these days from about 22 Nuclear Power Plants, India is
producing
power as well as Atom. It's a high security / secret that from where
which
is produced, how much is produced, where it is supplied, what research
is
being done with that, etc. to anybody. But if we sign this Agreement,
we
have to disclose these secrets and also agree to 14 of our Nuclear Power
Plants to be under the scanner of International Atomic Power
Organisation.

(3) The fuel utilised to produce Atomic Power can be recycled for reuse
and
this plant will be under direct supervision of IAPO.

If India does nuclear test, this agreement gets cancelled. But

(1) USA will take back all the machinery / equipments / technology
supplied
to India thus far.

(2) Those 14 plants will continue to be under scanner irrespective of
the
status of the agreement.

On the other hand, if any of the commitments given by USA is breached by
them, then there is no clause for cancelling this agreement.

The agreement is apparently like this... USA can either hug India or
slap
India. India will not ask why are we hugged or why are we slapped. On
the
other hand, India cannot hug or slap USA for breach of agreement.

This is only capsule so that easy to read and digest.

Subject: India Pledged.... Part 2

Requirement of Power

The most important requirement for India's Economic Growth in the coming
years will be the power & infrastructure. The argument put forth
favouring
the 123 Agreement says that we need Nuclear Power Production to be
increased to meet the demand.

Power Production in India

Presently following are the figures:

Thermal Power 66%
Hydel Power 26%
Solar & Wind Power 5% - Presently Rs.600 Crores are spent for producing
this power.
Nuclear Power 3% - If this is to be increased to 6%, it
requires
additional Rs.50,000 Crores.
Naturally it will be wise to increase other 3 modes of power production
rather than the expensive & dangerous Nuclear Power. Isn't??

URANIUM

We used to import Uranium from various other countries. After the
Pokran
Test, we are not getting it. To augment the supply, we need to sign the
123
Agreement to get Uranium from USA. But we will have to declare to USA
from
which power plant India takes raw material for producing Atom Bomb. Why
should we disclose our internal secrets to those bitches? Will any one
allow an outsider to continuously monitor what's happening in your Hall
&
Kitchen of your house? Other study reveals that Uranium is available
in
India aplenty. Only hurdle is the acquisition of land. To produce Atomic
Power & Bomb in the next 40 years, the requirement of Uranium is 25,000
MT
whereas the availability is 78,000 MT across India.

PLUTONIUM

Presently 35% of Plutonium is used to produce Atomic Bombs. After
signing
the Agreement, we will be allowed to use only 10%. Who are those bitches
to
restrict the usage of our natural resource ? That is though you are
capable of cooking & eating 10 idlis as your breakfast, you are allowed
only 3 idlis henceforth. How can it be? Why should we accept this?

THORIUM

As told by Dr.APJ, we have abundant Thorium. In fact we are the 2nd
largest
producer of Thorium next only to Australia. India has to explore this
further for producing power. For your information, in South India -
particularly around Kanyakumari, the availability of Thorium is
abundant.

INDIA-IRAN-CHINA

USA does not like the amicable relationship between India-Iran and also
India-China. If India-China relationship gets stronger, then both these
can rule the Eastern Part of the Globe which USA wants to break as per
their divide & rule.
By signing this agreement, USA wants India to depend on it for producing
power which is going to be a crucial factor in future. There is a talk
of
bringing Natural Gas from Iran to India with a big pipeline project. USA
doesn't like this proposal.

Atomic Power Technology

Whether power is produced or Bomb is produced, using Atomic power
without
spoiling the infrastructure and without allowing the radiation is always
under threat. Moreover preserving the wastes coming out of Atomic Power
Plants is expensive & unsafe.

There was an accident in Three Miles Island in USA. To close this plant
nearly USD 200 Crores spent with tons & tons of concrete but yet to be
fully closed.

In an another accident at Soviet Union's Serbia Plant, even the next
generation child are affected due to the radiation.

It will be very very expensive to defuse & close down an Atomic Power
Plant
than its construction cost.

France

France has got 56 Nuclear Power stations producing 73% of the country's
total power requirement. They are catching up the problem of
eliminating
the wastes / emissions from out of those plants at the same time
increase
the power production capacity. Government of France is now thinking how
to
reduce the power consumption in the country.

Conclusion

In view of the above danger, rather than signing the agreement and
pledging
India to USA, it will be prudent to increase the Solar & Wind Energy and
more importantly Hyder Power Production can be increased by linking all
rivers across India and by constructing DAMS. (Ofcourse Dam construction
projects can be given to L&T's B&F Sector:-)

The whole process of this Agreement started in the year 2005 when
Manmohan
visited USA. In a span of just 2 years a major decision of signing this
agreement has taken place with political motive. On the contrary,
neither
this Government nor any other earlier Central Government could not amend
the Constitution thereby nationalise the rivers across the country
thereby
effectively utilise the water resources for both Agriculture purpose and
producing Hydel Power. What an irony?

Whenever someone is helping the needy, you can't expect the TERMS AND
CONDITIONS BETWEEN THE needy and the helper to be EQUAL??? BUT

(1) the helper's ulterior motive should be seen with broad eye because
he
is capable of digging a grave behind you and
(2) better to be self-sufficient and explore new avenues with available
resources.

INDIA-CHINA-USA

India is very rich in Culture, follow Religions, Value Ethics, Level of
Eduction is Very Good.

China is also rich in Culture, follow Religion, better disciplined.

USA does not have Culture, does not have Ethics, only want power over
others. Particularly wants a firm footing in South Asia. Remember the
introduction EURO by European Countries and it is stronger than Dollar?
So
their "DAL" cannot be boiled at "EUROPE" (Paruppu vehaathu!). They are
trying in India as already Pakistan is in their clutches.

Galileo Galilei

Galileo Galilei



Galileo Galilei was born at Pisa on the 18th of February in 1564. His father,
Vincenzo Galilei, belonged to a noble family and had gained some distinction as a
musician and a mathematician. At an early age, Galileo manifested his ability to learn
both mathematical and mechanical types of things, but his parents, wishing to turn him
aside from studies which promised no substantial return, steered him toward some sort of

medical profession. But this had no effect on Galileo. During his youth he was allowed to
follow the path that he wished to.

Although in the popular mind Galileo is remembered chiefly as an astronomer,
however, the science of mechanics and dynamics pretty much owe their existence to his
findings. Before he was twenty, observation of the oscillations of a swinging lamp in the
cathedral of Pisa led him to the discovery of the isochronism of the pendulum, which
theory he utilized fifty years later in the construction of an astronomical clock. In 1588,
an
essay on the center of gravity in solids obtained for him the title of the Archimedes of his
time, and secured him a teaching spot in the University of Pisa. During the years
immediately following, taking advantage of the celebrated leaning tower, he laid the
foundation experimentally of the theory of falling bodies and demonstrated the falsity of
the peripatetic maxim, which is that an objects rate of descent is proportional to its
weight.
When he challenged this it made all of the followers of Aristotle extremely angry, they
would not except the fact that their leader could have been wrong. Galileo, in result of
this and other troubles, found it prudent to quit Pisa and move to Florence, the original
home of his family. In Florence he was nominated by the Venetian Senate in 1592 to the
chair of mathematics in the University of Padua, which he occupied for eighteen years,
with ever-increasing fame. After that he was appointed philosopher and mathematician to

the Grand Duke of Tuscany. During the whole of this period, and to the close of his life,
his investigation of Nature, in all her fields, was never stopped. Following up his
experiments at Pisa with others upon inclined planes, Galileo established the laws of
falling
bodies as they are still formulated. He likewise demonstrated the laws of projectiles, and
largely anticipated the laws of motion as finally established by Newton. In statics, he gave

the first direct and satisfactory demonstration of the laws of equilibrium and the principle
of virtual velocities. In hydrostatics, he set forth the true principle of flotation. He invented

a thermometer, though a defective one, but he did not, as is sometimes claimed for him,
invent the microscope.

Though, as has been said, it is by his astronomical discoveries that he is most
widely remembered, it is not these that constitute his most substantial title to fame. In this
connection, his greatest achievement was undoubtedly his virtual invention of the
telescope. Hearing early in 1609 that a Dutch optician, named Lippershey, had produced

an instrument by which the apparent size of remote objects was magnified, Galileo at
once
realized the principle by which such a result could alone be attained, and, after a single
night devoted to consideration of the laws of refraction, he succeeded in constructing a
telescope which magnified three times, its magnifying power being soon increased to
thirty-two. This instrument being provided and turned towards the heavens, the
discoveries, which have made Galileo famous, were bound at once to follow, though
undoubtedly he was quick to grasp their full significance. The moon was shown not to
be,
as the old astronomy taught, a smooth and perfect sphere, of different nature to the earth,

but to possess hills and valleys and other features resembling those of our own globe.
The planet Jupiter was found to have satellites, thus displaying a solar system in
miniature,
and supporting the doctrine of Copernicus. It had been argued against the said system
that, if it were true, the inferior planets, Venus and Mercury, between the earth and the
sun, should in the course of their revolution exhibit phases like those of the moon, and,
these being invisible to the naked eye, Copernicus had to change the false explanation
that
these planets were transparent and the sun's rays passed through them. But with his
telescope Galileo found that Venus did actually exhibit the desired phases, and the
objection was thus turned into an argument for Copernicanism.

Galileo was tried by the Inquisition for his writings discussing the Ptolemaic and
Copernican systems. In June 1633, Galileo was condemned to life imprisonment for
heresy. His writings about these subjects were banned, and printers were forbidden to
publish anything further by him or even to reprint his previous works. Outside Italy,
however, his writings were translated into Latin and were read by scholars throughout
Europe.

Galileo remained under imprisonment until his death in 1642. However he never
was a real prisoner for he never spent any time in a prison cell or being treated like a
criminal. Instead he spent his time in fancy apartments. The rest of the time he was
allowed to use houses of friends as his places of confinement the, always comfortable
and
usually luxurious.

Outline
Galileo Galilei
I. Early Life
A. Born in 1564 at Pisa
B. Parents want him to be a doctor
C. Eventually allowed to follow his own path

II. Accomplishments other than in the field of astronomy
A. Isochronism of the pendulum
1. later led to astronomical clock
B. Center of Gravity in Solids
C. Teacher at University of Pisa
D. Theory of Falling Bodies
E. Nominated to the chair of mathematics in the University of Padua
F. Laws of Projectiles
G. Laws of Equilibrium / Principle of Virtual Velocities
H. Thermometer

III. Astronomical Discoveries
A. Designed highest powered telescopes of the time.
B. The moon
1. Not a perfect and smooth sphere
C. Jupiter
1. Four moons of Jupiter
D. Venus and Mercury
1. Not transparent
2. Had phases

IV. Later Life
A. Tried by the Inquisition
1. For writings
2. Charged with Heresy
B. Sentenced to house arrest
1. lived in luxury
2. never in a prison cell
C. Writings Prohibited
D. Died in 1642

Bibliography

1. Drake, S. ,Galileo at Work: His Scientific Biography. Greensborough Press, 1995.

2. Finnochiara, Maurice A. ,The Galileo Affair. The University of California Press, 1989.

3. Redondi, P. ,Galileo Heretic. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987.

4. Reston, J. Jr. ,Galileo: A Life. HarperCollins Publishing, 1994.

5. Segre, M. ,In the Wake of Galileo. New Brunswick Co., 1992.

6. Sharratt, M. ,Galileo: Decisive Innovator., Sanford Publishing 1994




Word Count: 1113

Thomas Jefferson

Thomas Jefferson


The third president of the United States, a diplomat, statesman,
architect, scientist, and philosopher, Thomas Jefferson is one of
the most eminent figures in American history. No leader in the
period of the American Enlightenment was as articulate, wise, or
conscious of the implications and consequences of a free society
as Thomas Jefferson.

Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743, at Shadwell, a
tobacco plantation in Virginia. His father, Peter Jefferson, was
a self-made success, and although uneducated he was a very
intelligent man. His mother, Jane Randolph was a member of one of
the most distinguished families in Virginia . Peter Jefferson
died when Thomas was 14 and left him valuable lands and property.
Denied a formal education himself, he directed that his son be
given complete classical training. He studied with Reverend Mr.
Maury, a classical scholar, for two years and in 1760 he attended
William and Mary College.

After graduating from William and Mary in 1762, Jefferson studied
law for five years under George Wythe. In January of 1772, he
married Martha Wayles Skelton and established a residence at
Monticello. When they moved to Monticello, only a small one room
building was completed. Jefferson was thirty when he began his
political career. He was elected to the Virginia House of Burgess
in 1769, where his first action was an unsuccessful bill allowing
owners to free their slaves.

The impending crisis in British-Colonial relations overshadowed
routine affairs of legislature. In 1774, the first of the
Intolerable Acts closed the port of Boston until Massachusetts
paid for the Boston Tea Party of the preceding year. Jefferson
and other younger members of the Virginia Assembly ordained a day
of fasting and prayer to demonstrate their sympathy with
Massachusetts. Thereupon, Virginia's Royal Governor Dunmore once
again dissolved the assembly (Koch and Peden 20). The members met
and planned to call together an inter-colonial congress.
Jefferson began writing resolutions which were radical and better
written than those from other counties and colonies. Although his
resolutions were considered too revolutionary and not adopted,
they were printed and widely circulated and subsequently all
important writing assignments were entrusted to Jefferson.
When Jefferson arrived in Philadelphia in June, 1775, as a
Virginia delegate to the Second Continental Congress, he already
possessed, as John Adams remarked, "a reputation for literature,
science, and a happy talent of composition" (Koch and Peden 21).
When he returned in 1776, he was appointed to the five-man
committee, including Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, which was
charged with the most momentous assignment ever given in the
history of America: the drafting of a formal declaration of
independence from Great Britain (Daugherty 109). Jefferson was
responsible for preparing the draft. The document, was finally
approved by Congress on July 4, 1776. Cut and occasionally
altered by Adams, or Franklin, or the Congress itself, the
Declaration is almost completely Jefferson's, and is the triumph
and culmination of his early career. At this time, had he wanted
to be a political leader, he could have easily attained a
position in government. Instead, he chose to return to Monticello
and give his public service to Virginia. Returning to the
Virginia House of Delegates in October 1776, Jefferson set to
work on reforming the laws of Virginia. He also proposed a
rational plan of statewide education and attempted to write
religious toleration into the laws of Virginia by separating
Church and State by writing the "Bill for Establishing Religious
Freedom."

In June of 1779, Jefferson was elected Governor of Virginia. He
commenced his career as a public executive, confident of his
abilities, assured of the respect and almost the affection of his
commonwealth. However, he took up his duties at a time when the
British were raiding Virginia. General George Washington did not
have resources available to send to Virginia. Jefferson, during
one of the raids, narrowly escaped capture at the hands of the
British troops; and the legislators were forced to flee from
their new capital city of Richmond. Jefferson, as head of the
state, was singled out for criticism and abuse. At the end of his
second term, he announced his retirement. General Washington's
approval of Jefferson's actions as Governor is in marked contrast
to the heated charges of dereliction of duty made by certain
members of the legislature. After Washington's approval the
legislature passed a resolution officially clearing Jefferson of
all charges (Smith 134,135).

Jefferson returned home to Monticello in 1781, and buried himself
in writing about Virginia. The pages of text turned into a
manuscript later known as the Notes on Virginia. This book, rich
in its minute analysis of the details of external nature as in
its clarification of moral political, and social issues, was read
by scientists of two continents for years to come (Smith 142).
His wife, ill since the birth of their last daughter, died in
September 1782. In sorrow for his wife, Jefferson declined
numerous appointments. In June 1783, he was elected as a delegate
to the Confederation Congress where he headed important
committees and drafted many reports and official papers. He
advocated the necessity of more favorable international
commercial relations, and in 1784, compiled instructions for
ministers negotiating commercial treaties with European nations.
In May 1784, he was appointed Minister Plenipotentiary of the
United States to assist Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, both of
whom had preceded him to Europe to arrange commercial agreements
(Koch and Peden 24). He traveled throughout Europe and every
place he went, he was not only an American diplomat, but a
student of the useful sciences. He took notes on making wine and
cheese, planting and harvesting crops, and raising livestock. He
sent home to America information on the different cultures, the
actual seeds of a variety of grasses not native to America, olive
plants, and Italian rice. He remained in Paris until 1789 (Smith
170).

Upon his return President Washington asked Jefferson to be
Secretary of State. Jefferson accepted the post and found himself
at odds with the Secretary of Treasury, Alexander Hamilton.
Jefferson thought that all of Hamilton's acts were dominated by
one purpose: to establish government by and for a privileged few.
Jefferson repeatedly thought of retiring from the cabinet post in
which he was constantly pitted against Hamilton, the most power-
hungry man in the capital. After negotiating the country's
foreign affairs, Jefferson once again retired to Monticello.
During retirement, Jefferson supervised the farming of his
estates and designed a plow which revolutionized agriculture; he
tended his library like a garden; he changed the architectural
plans for Monticello, and supervised the construction. After
three rather active years of "retirement", Jefferson accepted the
Republican Party's nomination in 1796 for President. He lost by
three votes, which under the prevailing system, meant he was
elected Vice President and the Federalist, John Adams, was
elected president. The Federalist Administration turned upon its
political opponents by passing the Alien Act, to deport foreign
radicals and liberal, propagandists and agitators, and the
Sedition Act, to curb the press. The Sedition Act empowered the
Administration to fine, imprison, and prosecute any opposition
writer and thus the Republicans were muzzled in the remaining
years of Adams' Administration (Randall 523, 528). In 1800,
Jefferson and Aaron Burr ran for office. The electoral vote, in
marked contrast to the popular vote, resulted in a tie between
Jefferson and Burr. The Federalists threatened Jefferson to
bargain with them or they would elect Burr. Jefferson, however,
stood firm and made no promises, until the Federalists gave up.
As President, Jefferson's first project was to remove the bias
which had recently infected America. His policy of general
reconciliation and reform and his success in freeing the victims
of the Alien and Sedition laws were generally supported by a
favorable Congress (Randall 549). His popularity during his first
term was greater than at any time during his career. In this term
he was confronted with the most momentous problem of his career.
Spain transferred to France its rights to the port of New
Orleans, and the stretch of land constituting the province of
Louisiana. Louisiana in the strong hands of the French rather
than the weak hands of Spain placed an almost overwhelming
obstacle in the path of American growth and prosperity. It was
essential that America acquire the Louisiana territory, either
through peaceful negotiation or by war. When French dictator
Napoleon, suddenly offered to sell for $15,000,000 not only the
port of New Orleans but the entire fabulous slice of land from
the Mississippi to the Rockies, Jefferson was faced with the
problem of taking the offer or wait for a Constitutional
amendment authorizing such an act. After tremendous strain,
Jefferson authorized the purchase (Smith 266). Thus his first
term closed in a blaze of glory when the people, united in their
national good fortune, almost unanimously sent Jefferson back for
a second term. Busy as he was during these years, Jefferson had
found time to follow his favorite intellectual pursuits. He had
not only aided in establishing a National Library, but had made
many valuable additions to his own private collection.

His second term was full of difficulties. To avoid war, Jefferson
promoted the Non-Intercourse Act of 1806 and the Embargo of 1807.
The Embargo was heavily criticized and had not been effective. To
make matters worse, the domestic front was racked with defections
and desertions. When his term expired on March 3, 1809, he was
thrilled to be leaving politics and returning to Monticello
(Mclaughlin 376).

Jefferson's daughter Martha said that in retirement her father
never abandon a friend or principle. He and John Adams, their
earlier political differences reconciled, wrote many letters.
Jefferson frequently complained about the time consumed in
maintaining his ever increasing correspondence but he could not
resist an intellectual challenge or turn down an appeal for his
opinion, advice, or help, and continued to discuss with frankness
and a brilliant clarity such diverse subjects as anthropology and
political theory, religion and zoology (Koch and Peden 40).
Jefferson's major concern during his last years was education and
educational philosophy. He considered knowledge not only a means
to an end, but an end in itself. He felt education was the key to
virtue as it was to happiness. He reopened his campaign for a
system of general education in Virginia. Through his efforts, the
University of Virginia, the first American University to be free
of official church connection, was established and was
Jefferson's daily concern during his last seven years (Koch and
Peden 39). He sent abroad an agent to select the faculty, he
chose the books for the library, drew up the curriculum, designed
the buildings, and supervised their construction. The University
finally opened in 1825, the winter before his death. Despite his
preoccupation with the University, he continued to pursue a
multitude of other tasks. In his eightieth year, for example, he
wrote on politics, sending President Monroe long expositions
later known to the world in Monroe's version as the Monroe
Doctrine (Daugherty 326).

Among all his interests, there was one intrusion on his time and
thought which caused Jefferson endless embarrassment. His
finances, always shaky, finally collapsed. Jefferson had
frequently advanced money to friends who fancied themselves more
hard-pressed than he, and occasionally had been forced to make
good on their notes when they found it impossible to do so. He
had spent money lavishly on his libraries and the arts, on
Monticello, and on his children's education. His passion for
architecture cost him a small fortune. At the final stage of his
financial distress, Jefferson petitioned the Virginia legislature
to grant him permission to dispose of Monticello and its farms by
lottery. The almost immediate response of private citizens, in
New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, on hearing this news was
to donate a sum of over $16,000 to aid the leader who had devoted
his industry and resourcefulness to all America for half a century
(Smith 304).

On July 4, 1826, Jefferson died at Monticello. He was buried on
the hillside beside his wife. He had written the script for his
headstone himself:
Here was buried
Thomas Jefferson
Author of the Declaration of American Independence
of the Statute of Virginia for religious freedom
and Father of the University of Virginia.
On our family vacation last fall to Virginia, my wife and I
toured Jefferson's Monticello home and also viewed his grave
site. We both found it very interesting that of all the
accomplishments that Jefferson listed on his headstone he
apparently did not think it important enough to mention that he
had been twice elected and served as president of the United
States.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Daugherty, Sonia. Thomas Jefferson: Fighter for Freedom and Human
Rights. New York:
Frederick Ungar Publishing Company, 1961.
Koch, Adrienne, and William Peden. The Life and Selected Writings
Of Thomas Jefferson.
New York: Random House Publishers, 1993.
McLaughlin, Jack. Jefferson and Monticello The Biography Of A
Builder. 1st ed. New
York: Henry Holt and Company Publishers, 1988.
Randall, Willard Sterne. Thomas Jefferson A Life. 1st ed. New
York: Henry Holt and
Company Publishers, 1993.
Smith, Page. Jefferson A Revealing Biography. New York: American
Heritage Publishing Company, 1976.

U.S. vs. Japan in WWII

U.S. vs. Japan in WWII

On August 6, 1945 the atomic bomb was dropped on the
Japanese city of Hiroshima. The Enola Gay, piloted by
Colonel Tibbetts, was chosen to make the mission. The
mission was recorded as successful by Capt. William S.
Parson at 9:20 A.M. This was an extremely controversial
military strategy in the United States. Was the United
States justified in the dropping of the atomic bomb? Yes,
they were justified formany reasons. The primary reason was,
that it would stop the war. Why is it that this war needed
to be stopped so badly? Even though in some ways it was
helping our economy, it was very costly in both money and
lives. Also, the United States soldiers were undergoing
harsh treatment by the unmerciful Japanese. Another reason
the war needed to be stopped was to defend ourselves from
another attack on U.S. soil, which in turn would kill many
of our U.S. citizens. This is why the war needed to be
stopped; thus, justifying the use of the atomic bomb.
World War II was the costliest war in history, in
terms of lives lost. No exact figures exist, but
approximately between 15 and 20 million military personnel
were killed. Of these, 292,000 were Americans and 6,000
innocent United States citizens were murdered by our
enemies. It has been estimated that if the United States had
not dropped the bomb and had invaded Japan instead, the
United States would have lost about a million soldiers. The
Japanese suicidal fighting strategies greatly effected this
number. The Japanese would rather die than surrender. This
is demonstrated by the battle of Saipan. At this battle over
half of the population of Saipan walked off a cliff instead
of surrendering to the United States. This was often very
effective. Many times when a Japanese soldier decided to
blow himself up instead of surrendering he would kill many
Americans with the same blast. Also the kamikaze techniques
of the Japanese fighters killed many soldiers. If this war
would have continued we could have lost thousands more.
Also up to this point we spent 300 billion dollars on war
efforts. Many materials and other objects were damaged. Any
estimate on how much money was lost in damages would be
futile. This number would have continued to rise if it had
not been for the use of the atomic bomb.
The horrendous atrocities that occurred during World
War II were unmerciful as well as unnecessary. During one
invasion of China, the rape of Nanking, the Japanese killed
100,000 Chinese civilians. They were burned, butchered, and
raped. Sometimes the Japanese would tie a big group of them
together and use them for bayonet and sword practice. After
the fall of Bataan the soldiers were forced to go on a
death march. During this march many unheard of things
happened to the soldiers. A soldier was often killed for
trying to get a drink of water. If a soldier fell down the
Japanese would either bayonet them or knock them
unconscious. Once they were knocked unconscious, the
Japanese then forced another American soldier to bury the
unconscious soldier alive. One soldier once commented, "The
worst time was once when a burial victim with about six
inches of earth over him suddenly regained consciousness and
clawed his way out until he was almost sitting upright. Then
I learned to what length a man will go to hang onto his
life. The bayonets began to prod me in the side and I was
forced to bash the soldier over the head with the shovel and
then finish burying him."(Kappler, Pg. 168) This harsh
treatment to innocent civilians and our soldiers
needed to stop. The atomic bomb was a way to stop it.
On December 7, 1941," A day that will live in
infamy," Pearl Harbor was deliberately attacked by the
Japanese. Reports indicate that 2400 people were killed and
1300 were wounded. The reason Japan bombed Pearl Harbor was
because that was where all of our Navy ships were
positioned. They were hoping to take out the Navy and were
almost successful. The aircraft carriers were expected to be
in the harbor, but luckily were not. Although the attack may
have been a military success in the minds of the Japanese it
became a huge mistake in the final analysis. One reason it
was a mistake was it caused the U.S. to enter the war. We
were the ultimate cause to Japan losing the war. Secondly it
made the Americans angry and determined to destroy the
Japanese. Many congressmen volunteered for active duty,
asking for a one day respite to cast their vote for war.
Also recruiting offices were flooded with young patriots who
wanted to help there country out. This attack was just an
example of what could have happened if the war had
continued. If the war had continued another attack on U.S.
soil could have taken place. This could have turned the
6,000 dead American civilians into 9,000 dead civilians.
That number could have kept rising until the war was over.
That is another reason the bomb needed to be dropped to stop
the war.
The war was a horrible thing. It killed millions and
destroyed the lives of millions more. It lasted six years
and could have lasted longer; with death and destruction
increasing every year. Ending such a horrible thing should
be reason enough to drop the atomic bomb. The cruelty of the
Japanese at such places as Bataan and Nanking was horrible
and needed to be stopped. Although the atomic bomb caused
much death devastation it indirectly saved lives. America
made their power known by frightening other European
powers. This bombing has serviced to prohibit future attacks
on American soil. The atomic bomb was the best solution. The
atomic bomb may have killed thousands, but it saved
millions.

MARCO POLO

Marco Polo

Marco Polo is one of the most well-known heroic travelers and traders around the world. In my paper I will discuss with
you Marco Polo’s life, his travels, and his visit to China to see the great Khan. Marco Polo was born in c.1254 in Venice.
He was a Venetian explorer and merchant whose account of his travels in Asia was the primary source for the European
image of the Far East until the late 19th century. Marco's father, Niccolò, and his uncle Maffeo had traveled to China
(1260-69) as merchants. When they left (1271) Venice to return to China, they were accompanied by 17-year-old
Marco and two priests.

Early Life

Despite his enduring fame, very little was known about the personal life of Marco Polo. It is known that he was born into
a leading Venetian family of merchants. He also lived during a propitious time in world history, when the height of
Venice’s influence as a city-state coincided with the greatest extent of Mongol conquest of Asia(Li Man Kin 9). Ruled by
Kublai Khan, the Mongol Empire stretched all the way from China to Russia and the Levant. The Mongol hordes also
threatened other parts of Europe, particularly Poland and Hungary, inspiring fear everywhere by their bloodthirsty
advances. Yet the ruthless methods brought a measure of stability to the lands they controlled, opening up trade routes
such as the famous Silk Road. Eventually ,the Mongols discovered that it was more profitable to collect tribute from
people than to kill them outright, and this policy too stimulated trade(Hull 23).

Into this favorable atmosphere a number of European traders ventured, including the family of Marco Polo. The Polos
had long-established ties in the Levant and around the Black Sea: for example, they owned property in Constantinople,
and Marco’s uncle, for whom he was named, had a home in Sudak in the Crimea(Rugoff 8). From Sudak, around 1260,
another uncle, Maffeo, and Marco’s father, Niccolò, made a trading visit into Mongol territory, the land of the Golden
Horde(Russia), ruled by Berke Khan. While they were there, a war broke out between Berke and the Cowan of Levant ,
blocking their return home. Thus Niccolò and Maffeo traveled deeper into mongol territory, moving southeast to
Bukhara, which was ruled by a third Cowan. While waiting there, they met an emissary traveling farther eastward who
invited them to accompany him to the court of the great Cowan, Kublai, in Cathay(modern China). In Cathay, Kublai
Khan gave the Polos a friendly reception, appointed them his emissaries to the pope, and ensured their safe travel back to
Europe(Steffof 10). They were to return to Cathay with one hundred learned men who could instruct the Mongols in the
Christian religion and the liberal arts.

In 1269, Niccolò and Maffeo Polo arrived back in Venice, where Niccolò found out his wife had died while he was
gone(Rugoff 5). Their son, Marco, who was only about fifteen years old, had been only six or younger when his father left
home:thus; Marco was reared primarily by his mother and the extended Polo family-and the streets of Venice. After his
mother’s death, Marco had probably begun to think of himself as something of a orphan(Rugoff 6). Then his father and
uncle suddenly reappeared, as if from the dead, after nine years of traveling in far-off, romantic lands. These experiences
were the formative influences on young Marco, and one can see their effects mirrored in his character: a combination of
sensitivity and toughness, independence and loyalty, motivated by an eagerness for adventure, a love of stories, and a
desire to please or impress(Li Man Kin 10).

Life’s Work

In 1268, Pope Clement IV died, and a two- or three-year delay while another pope was being elected gave young
Marco time to mature and to absorb the tales of his father and uncle. Marco was seventeen years old when he, his father
and uncle finally set out for the court of Kublai Khan(Stefoff 13). They were accompanied not by one hundred wise men
but by two Dominican friars, and the two good friars turned back at the first sign of adversity, another local war in the
Levant. Aside from the pope’s messages, the only spiritual gift Europe was able to furnish the great Kublai Khan was oil
from the lamp burning at Jesus Christ’s supposed tomb in Jerusalem. Yet, in a sense, young Marco, the only new person
in the Polos’ party, was himself a fitting representative of the spirit of European civilization on the eve of the Renaissance,
and the lack of one hundred learned Europeans guaranteed that he would catch the eye of the Cowan, who was curious
about “Latins"(Hull 29).

On the way to the khan’s court, Marco had the opportunity to complete his education. The journey took three and a half
years by horseback through some of the world’s most rugged terrain, including snowy mountain ranges, such as the
Pamirs, and parching deserts, such as the Gobi. Marco and his party encountered such hazards as wild beasts and
brigands; they also met with beautiful women, in whom young Marco took a special interest. The group traveled
numerous countries and cultures, noting food, dress, and religion unique to each(Li Man Kin 17). In particular, under the
khans’s protection the Polos were able to observe a large portion of the Islamic world at close range, as few if any
European Christians had. By the time they reached the khan’s court in Khanbalik, Marco had become a hardened
traveler. He had also received a unique education and had been initiated into manhood.

Kublai Khan greeted the Polos warmly and invited them to stay on in his court. Here, if Marco’s account is to be
believed, the Polos became great favorites of the khan, and Kublai eventually made Marco one of his most trusted
emissaries(Great Lives from History 16765). On these points Marco has been accused of gross exaggeration, and the
actual status of the Polos at the court of the khan is much disputed. If at first it appears unlikely that Kublai would make
young Marco an emissary, upon examination this seems quite reasonable. For political reasons, the khan was in the habit
of appointing foreigners to administer conquered lands, particularly China, where the tenacity of the Chinese bureaucracy
was legendary. The khan could also observe for himself that young Marco was a good candidate. Finally, Marco
reported back so successfully from his fist mission-informing the khan not only on business details but also on colorful
customs and other interesting trivia-that his further appointment was confirmed. The journeys specifically mentioned in
Marco’s book, involving travel across China and a sea voyage to India, suggests that the khan did indeed trust him with
some of the most difficult missions(Rugoff 25).

The Polos stayed on for seventeen years, another indication of how valued they were in the khan’s court. Marco, his
father, and his uncle not only survived-itself an achievement amid the political hazards of the time-but also
prospered(Great Lives from History 1678). Apparently, the elder Polos carried on their trading while Marco was
performing his missions; yet seventeen years is a long time to trade without returning home to family and friends.
According to Macro, because the khan held them in such high regard, he would not let them return home, but as the khan
aged the Polos began to fear what would happen after his death(Hull 18). Finally an opportunity to leave presented itself
when trusted emissaries were needed to accompany a Mongol princess on a wedding voyage by sea to Persia, where she
was promised to the local khan. The Polos sailed from Cathay with a fleet of fourteen ships and a wedding party of six
hundred people, not counting the sailors. Only a few members of the wedding entourage survived the journey of almost
two years, but luckily the survivors included the Polos and the princess. Fortunately, too, the Polos duly delivered the
princess not to the old khan of Persia, who had meanwhile died, but to his son(Li Man Kin 21).

From Persia, the Polos made their way back to Venice. They were robbed as soon as they got into Christian territory,
but they still managed to reach home in 1295, with plenty of rich goods. According to Giovanni Battista Ramusio, one of
the early editors of Marco’s book, the Polos strode into Venice looking like rugged Mongols(Stefoff 17). Having thought
them dead, their relatives at first did not recognize them, then were astounded, and then were disgusted by their shabby
appearance. Yet, according to Ramusio, the scorn changed to delight when the returned travelers invited everyone to a
homecoming banquet, ripped apart their old clothes, and let all the hidden jewels clatter to the table(Great Lives from
History 1676).

The rest of the world might have learned little about the Polos’ travels if fate had not intervened in Marco’s life. In his
early forties, Marco was not yet ready to settle down. Perhaps he was restless for further adventure, or perhaps he felt
obliged to fulfill his civic duties to his native city-state. In any event, he became involved in naval warfare between
Venetians and their trading rivals, the Genoese, and was captured. In 1298, the great traveler across Asia and emissary
of the khan found himself rotting in a prison in Genoa-an experience that could have ended tragically but instead took a
lucky turn. In prison Marco met a man named Rustichello from Persia, who was a writer of romances(Stefoff 21). To
pass the time, Marco dictated his observations about Asia to Rustichello, who, in writing them down, probably employed
the Italianized Old French that was the language of medieval romances.

Their book was soon circulating, since Marco remained in prison only a year or so, very likely gaining his freedom when
the Venetians and Genoese made peace in 1299(Rugoff 32). After his prison experience, Marco was content to lead a
quiet life in Venice with the rest of his family and bask in his almost instant literary fame. He married Donata Badoer, a
member of the Venetian aristocracy. eventually grew up to marry nobles. Thus Marco seems to have spent the last part of
his life moving in Venetian aristocratic circles. After living what was then a long life, Marco died in 1324, only seventy
years of age. In his will he left most of his modest wealth to his three daughters, a legacy that included goods which he
had brought back from Asia. His will also set free a Tartar slave, who had remained with him since his return from the
court of the great khan(Li Man Kin 25).

Works Cited

Great Lives from History. Ancient and Medieval Series. Pasadena,
California: Salem Press, 1988. 2: 1675-1680.
Hull, Mary. The Travels of Marco Polo. California: Lucent Books Inc.,
1995.
Li Man Kin. Marco Polo in China. Hong Kong: Kingsway International
Publications, 1981.
Rugoff, Milton. Marco Polo's Adventures In China. New York: American
Heritage Publishing Co., 1964.
Stefoff, Rebecca. Marco Polo and the Medieval Explorers. Chelsea House
Publishers, 1992.

LEONARDO DA VINCI

Leonardo Da Vinci

Leonardo Da Vinci is one of the greatest and most ingenious
men that history has produced. His contributions in the areas of art,
science, and humanity are still among the most important that a single
man has put forth, definitely making his a life worth knowing.
Da Vinci, born on April 15, 1452, is credited with being a
master painter, sculptor, architect, musician, engineer, and
scientist. He was born an illegitimate child to Catherina, a peasant
girl. His father was Ser Piero da Vinci, a public notary for the city
of Florence, Italy. For the first four years of his life he lived
with his mother in the small village of Vinci, directly outside of the
great center of the Renaissance, Florence. Catherina was a poor
woman, with possible artistic talent, the genetic basis of Leonardo's
talents. Upon the realization of Leonardo's potential, his father
took the boy to live with him and his wife in Florence (Why did).
This was the start of the boy's education and his quest for knowledge.
Leonardo was recognized by many to be a "Renaissance child"
because of his many talents. As a boy, Leonardo was described as
being handsome, strong, and agile. He had keen powers of observation,
an imagination, and the ability to detach himself from the world
around him. At an early age Leonardo became interested in subjects
such as botany, geology, animals (specifically birds), the motion of
water, and shadows (About Leonardo).
At the age of 17, in about 1469, Leonardo was apprenticed as a
garzone (studio boy) to Andrea del Verrocchio, the leading Florentine
painter and sculptor of his day. In Verrocchio's workshop Leonardo
was introduced to many techniques, from the painting of altarpieces
and panel pictures to the creation of large sculptural projects in
marble and bronze.
In 1472 he was accepted in the painter's guild of Florence,
and worked there for about six years. While there, Leonardo often
painted portions of Verrocchio's paintings for him, such as the
background and the kneeling angel on the left in the Baptism of Christ
(Encarta). Leonardo's sections of the painting have soft shadings,
with shadows concealing the edges. These areas are distinguished
easily against the sharply defined figures and objects of Verrocchio,
that reflect the style called Early Renaissance. Leonardo's more
graceful approach marked the beginning of the High Renaissance.
However, this style did not become more popular in Italy for another
25 year (Gilbert 46). Leonardo actually started the popularization of
this style. For this reason Leonardo could be called the "Father of
the High Renaissance." Leonardo's leading skills emerged through his
paintings and his techniques. Leonardo's talents soon drew him away
from the Guild and in 1472 Leonardo finished his first complete
painting, Annunciation. In 1478 Leonardo reached the title of an
Independent Master. His first large painting, The Adoration of the
Magi (begun in 1481), which was left unfinished, was ordered in 1481
for the Monastery of San Donato a Scopeto, Florence. Other works
ascribed to his youth are the Benois Madonna (1478), the portrait
Ginevra de' Benci (1474), and the unfinished Saint Jerome (1481).
Leonardo expanded his skills to other branches of interest and in 1481
Leonardo wrote an astonishing letter to the Duke of Milan, Ludovico
Sforza. In this letter he stated that he knew how to build portable
bridges; that he knew the techniques of constructing bombardments and
of making cannons; that he could build ships as well as armored
vehicles, catapults, and other war machines; and that he could execute
sculpture in marble, bronze, and clay.
Thus, he entered the service of the Duke in 1482, working on
Ludovico's castle, organizing festivals, and he became recognized as
an expert in military engineering and arms. Under the Duke, Leonardo
served many positions. He served as principal engineer in the Duke's
numerous military enterprises and was active as an architect
(Encarta). As a military engineer Leonardo designed artillery and
planned the diversion of rivers. He also improved many inventions
that were already in use such as the rope ladder. Leonardo also drew
pictures of an armored tank hundreds of years ahead of its time. His
concept failed because the tank was too heavy to be mobile and the
hand cranks he designed were not strong enough to support such a
vehicle.
As a civil engineer, he designed revolving stages for
pageants. As a sculptor he planned a huge monument of the Duke's
father mounted up on a leaping horse. The Horse, as it was known, was
the culmination of 16 years of work. Leonardo was fascinated by
horses and drew them constantly. In The Horse, Leonardo experimented
with the horses' forelegs and measurements.
The severe plagues in 1484 and 1485 drew his attention to town
planning, and his drawings and plans for domed churches reflect his
concern with architectural problems (Bookshelf). In addition he also
assisted the Italian mathematician Luca Pacioli in the work Divina
Proportione (1509).
While in Milan Leonardo kept up his own work and studies with
the possible help of apprentices and pupils, for whom he probably
wrote the various texts later compiled as Treatise on Painting (1651).
The most important painting of those created in the early Milan age
was The Virgin of the Rocks. Leonardo worked on this piece for an
extended period of time, seemingly unwilling to finish what he had
begun (Encarta). It is his earliest major painting that survives in
complete form. From 1495 to 1497 Leonardo labored on his masterpiece,
The Last Supper, a mural in the refectory of the Monastery of Santa
Maria delle Grazie, Milan.
While painting The Last Supper, Leonardo rejected the fresco
technique normally used for wall paintings. An artist that uses this
fresco method must work quickly. Leonardo wanted to work slowly,
revising his work, and use shadows-which would have been impossible in
using fresco painting. He invented a new technique that involved
coating the wall with a compound that he had created. This compound,
which was supposed to protect the paint and hold it in place did not
work, and soon after its completion the paint began to flake away.
For this reason The Last Supper still exists, but in poor condition
(Gilbert 46). Leonardo had at many times merged his inventive and
creative capabilities to enhance life and improve his works. Although
his experiments with plastering and painting failed, they showed his
dissatisfaction with an accepted means and his creativity and courage
to experiment with a new and untried idea. Experimentation with
traditional techniques is evident in his drawings as well.
During Leonardo's 18 year stay in Milan he also produced other
paintings and drawings, but most have been lost. He created stage
designs for theater, architectural drawings, and models for the dome
of Milan Cathedral. Leonardo also began to produce scientific
drawings, especially of the human body. He studied anatomy by
dissecting human corpses and the bodies of animals. Leonardo's
drawings did not only clarify the appearance of bones, tendons, and
other body parts but their function in addition. These drawings are
considered to be the first accurate representations of human anatomy.
Leonardo is also credited with the first use of the cross
section, a popular technique for diagramming the human body. Leonardo
wrote, "The painter who has acquired a knowledge of the nature of the
sinews, muscles, and tendons will know exactly in the movement of any
limb how many and which of the sinews are the cause of it, and which
muscle by its swelling is the cause of this sinew's contracting"
(Wallace 131).
In December, 1499, the Sforza family was driven out of Milan
by French forces and Leonardo was forced to leave Milan and his
unfinished statue of Ludovico Sforza's father, which was destroyed by
French archers that used it for target practice. Leonardo then
returned to Florence in 1500 (Bookshelf).
When Leonardo returned to Florence the citizens welcomed him
with open arms because of the fame he acquired while in Milan. The
work he did there strongly influenced other artists such as Sandro
Botticelli and Piero di Cosimo. The work he was to produce would
influence other masters such as Michelangelo and Raphael. In 1502
Leonardo entered the service of Cesare Borgia, Duke of Romagna and son
and Chief General of Pope Alexander VI. For this post he supervised
work on the fortress of the papal territories in central Italy. In
1503 he was a member of a commission of artists to decide on the
proper location for the David by Michelangelo (Encarta).
Towards the end of the year Leonardo began to design a
decoration for the Great Hall of the Palazzo Vecchio. Leonardo chose
the Battle of Anghiari as the subject of the mural, a victory for
Florence in a war against Pisa. He made many drawings and sketches of
a cavalry battle, with tense soldiers, leaping horses and clouds of
dust. In painting The Battle of Anghiari Leonardo again rejected
fresco and tried an experimental technique called encaustic. Once
again the experiment was unsuccessful. Leonardo went on a trip and
left the painting unfinished. When he returned he found that the
paint had run and he never finished the painting. The paintings
general appearance is known from Leonardo's sketches and other
artists' copies of it (Creighton 45).
During the period of time that Leonardo spent painting the
Palazzo Vecchio he also painted several other works, including the
most famous portrait ever, the Mona Lisa. The Mona Lisa, also known
as La Gioconda, (after the presumed name of the model's husband)
became famous because of the unique expression on Lisa del Gioconda's
face. She appears to have just started to or finished smiling. This
painting was one of Leonardo's favorites and he carried it with him on
all of his subsequent travels (Clark 133).
In 1506, Leonardo returned to Milan to finished up some of his
projects that he had to abandon during his hasty departure. He stayed
there until 1516 when he moved to Cloux, France, where he stayed with
his pupil Melzi. While in Milan he was named Court Painter to King
Louis XII of France, who was then residing in Milan. For the next six
years he traveled from Milan to Florence repeatedly to look after his
inheritance. In 1514 he traveled to Rome under the patronage of Pope
Leo X. During this time Leonardo's energy was focused mainly on his
scientific experiments. He then moved to France to serve King Francis
I. It is here in Chateau de Cloux that he died on May 2,1519 (Wallace
127).
Leonardo constantly reworked his drawings, studies and
mechanical theories. His observations of the motion of water are
amazingly accurate. In Leonardo's Studies of Water Formation, the
flow patterns observed are swirling around , then below as it forms a
pool. Using modern slow motion cameras' scientists now study the same
effects that Leonardo wrote about and observed with his naked eye
(Encarta).
Another study of water and wind is his Apocalyptic Visions.
This is a collected study of hurricanes and storms. In these highly
detailed drawings the pen lines so carefully marked explode into
action similar to the storms themselves. Leonardo's mathematical
drawings are also highly skilled. In a math formula Leonardo proved
the theory of perpetual motion false but it still intrigued him.
Among his vast notes were small ideas for a perpetual motion machine.
His ideas for completing this task involved an unbalanced wheel that
would revolve forever, conserving its energy. However these machines
were never constructed. Another mathematical drawing was the
Polyhedron. This three dimensional figure represented proportions to
him "not only in numbers and measurements but also in sounds, weights,
positions and in whatsoever power there may be" (Wallace 59).
The notebooks of Leonardo contain sketches and plans for
inventions that came into existence almost five-hundred years after
the Renaissance. Leonardo practiced a technique of writing backwards.
It has been postulated that he did this, being left-handed, so that
he wouldn't smear the ink by his left hand running across
newly-written words. Moreover, the individual words are spelled
backwards. In order to read the Notebooks one must hold the pages up
to a mirror and it is believed by some that Leonardo did this to keep
his writing and theories secret. In any event, contained in the
Notebooks are plans and drawings for what we recognize today as the
first working propeller, a submarine, a helicopter, a tank,
parachutes, the cannon, perpetual motion machines, and the rope
ladder. There are perfectly executed drawings of the human body, from
the proportions of the full figure to dissections in the most minute
detail. It was observed, however, that Leonardo's interest in the
human body and his ability to invent mechanical things were actually
not as paramount to him as was his fascination and awe of the natural
world (Clark 133).
Leonardo lived to be 67 years old. He is not known to have
ever married or had children. In fact, it was said of him that he
only saw women as "reproductive mechanisms" (Clark 134).
If there is one quality that characterizes the life of Leonardo da
Vinci it would be his curiosity for life and the world around him.
Curiosity is the force that motivated him to observe, dissect and
document every particle of matter that warranted his attention. From
babies in the womb to seashells on the beach, nothing escaped his
relentless intellect. The mind of Leonardo transcends the period of
the Renaissance and every epoch thereafter. It is universally
acknowledged that his imagination, his powers of reason, and his sheer
energy surpass that of any person in history. The study of Leonardo
is limited only by the inadequacy of the student.

KENNEDY

JFK



John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the 35th President of the United States, the youngest person ever to be elected President, the first Roman Catholic and the first to be born in the 20th century. Kennedy was assassinated before he completed his third year as President, therefore his achievements were limited. Nevertheless, his influence was worldwide, and his handling of the Cuban Missile Crisis may have prevented the United States from entering into another world war. Kennedy was especially admired by the younger people and he was perhaps the most popular president in history. Kennedy expressed the values of 20th century America and his presidency had an importance beyond its political achievements. John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born in Brookline, Massachusetts where he was one of nine children. The Kennedy family was very wealthy and provided means for the Kennedy children to pursue whatever they chose and John F. Kennedy chose politics.
John F. Kennedy was elected to Congress in 1942 and as a new member Kennedy supported legislation that would serve the interests of his elements. Kennedy usually backed bills sponsored by his party but would sometimes show independence by voting with the Republicans. He also joined with the Republicans in criticizing the Truman administration’s handling of China. In China, the Nationalist government of Chiang Kai-shek, which had been supported by the United States, was unable to withstand the advance of Communist forces under Mao Zedong. By the end of 1949 government troops had been overwhelmingly defeated, and Chiang led his forces into exile on Taiwan. The triumphant Mao formed the People’s Republic of China. Truman’s critics, including Kennedy, charged that the administration had failed to support Chiang Kai-shek against the Communists.
Despite Kennedy’s wavering within his own party platform, John F. Kennedy easily won reelection to Congress in 1948 and 1950. In 1952 he decided to run against functioning Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. Kennedy was little known outside his congressional district therefore he began his campaign two years before the election, meeting with hundreds of thousands of people in Massachusetts. "Kennedy defeated Lodge by 70,000"1 votes despite the fact that Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Presidential candidate, carried the state by just over 200,000 votes.
As a candidate for the Senate, Kennedy promised the voters that he would do more for Massachusetts than Lodge had ever done. During his first two years as senator he backed legislation beneficial to the Massachusetts textile, fishing, watch, and transportation industries. In 1953, however, he defied regional interests and supported the Saint Lawrence Seaway project and later in 1955 he was the only New England senator to support renewal of the Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act that gave the President the power to lower U. S. tariffs, or taxes on import goods, in exchange for similar concessions from other countries.
In 1957 Kennedy became a member of the powerful Senate Foreign Relations Committee, and he later won a place on the Senate Committee on Improper Activities in the Labor Management Field. In 1958 he spent many of his weekends campaigning for reelection in Massachusetts senatorial contest. Kennedy wanted the 1960 Democratic presidential nomination, and almost as soon as the 1956 election was over, he began working toward it.
Kennedy announced his candidacy early in 1960 and by the time the Democratic National Convention opened in July, he had won seven primary victories. When the convention opened, it appeared that Kennedy’s only serious challenge for the nomination would come from the Senate majority leader, Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas. However, Johnson was strong only among Southern delegates and Kennedy won the nomination on the first ballot and then persuaded Johnson to become his running mate.
Two weeks later the Republicans nominated Vice President Richard Nixon for president and Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., for vice president. In the fast-paced campaign that followed, Kennedy made stops in 46 states and 273 cities and towns, while Nixon visited every state and 170 urban areas. The two candidates faced each other in four nationally televised debates. Kennedy’s manner, especially in the first debate, seemed to eliminate the charge that he was too young and inexperienced to serve as president, and many believe these debates gave Kennedy the edge he needed for victory.
The election drew a record 69 million voters to the polls, but Kennedy won by only 113,000 votes which made it the closest popular vote in 72 years. Because Kennedy won most of the larger states in the Northeastern United States, he received 303 electoral votes to Nixon’s 219. Kennedy was inaugurated on January 20, 1961. In his inaugural address he emphasized America’s revolutionary heritage, "The same beliefs for which our forebears fought are still at issue around the globe,"2 Kennedy said. "Let the word go forth from this time and place to friend and foe alike, that the torch has been passed to a new generations of Americans."3 Kennedy called for "a new world of law, where the strong are just and the weak secure and the peace preserved."4
Kennedy’s first year in office brought him considerable success in enacting new legislation. Congress passed a major housing bill, a law increasing minimum wage, and a bill granting federal aid to economically depressed areas of the United States. Kennedy put legislation through Congress which was a bill creating the Peace Corps, an agency that trained American volunteers to perform social and humanitarian service oversees and promote world peace, which was important at the time because of unsettling foreign affairs.
In 1959, after several attempts, a revolution led by Fidel Castro finally overthrew the Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista y Zaldivar. During the next two years, Castro would become increasingly hostile to the United States. When Castro began to proclaim his belief in Communism, Cuba became part of the Cold War, or struggle between the U. S. and its allies and the nations led by the USSR that involved intense economic and diplomatic battles.
Many Cubans began to flee to the United States and during the Eisenhower administration the CIA had begun to train Cuban exiles secretly for an invasion of Cuba. In April 1961 more than "1000 Cuban exiles made an amphibious landing"5 in Cuba at a place called the Bay of Pigs. Their plan was to move inland and join with anti-Castro forces to stage a revolt simultaneously, but instead Castro’s forces were there to meet the invaders. The revolt in the interior did not materialize, and air support, promised by the CIA, never came. The exiles were defeated and the survivors were taken prisoner. Castro began to demand money for their release but Kennedy refused to negotiate with Castro. Kennedy did take steps to encourage both businesses and private citizens to reach an agreement with Castro and to contribute to the ransom. On December 25, 1962, "1113 prisoners were released in exchange for food and medical supplies valued at a total of approximately $53 million."6
On June 3, 1961, in Vienna, Austria, Kennedy and USSR leader Nikata Khrushchev met and reviewed relationships between the U. S. and the USSR, as well as other questions of interest to the two states. Two incidents contributed to hostility at the meeting, first being the shooting down of a U. S. spy plane in Soviet air space, and the second was the failed Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba in early 1961. The results of the conference made it clear that Khrushchev had construed Kennedy’s failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion as a sign of weakness. No agreements were reached on any important issues and the Soviet premier made it clear that the Soviet Union untended to pursue an even more aggressive policy toward the United States.
Amongst other problems President Kennedy faced, none was more serious than the Cuban Missile Crisis. In 1960 Soviet Premier Khrushchev supplied Cuba with nuclear missiles that would put the eastern United States within range of nuclear missile attack. During the summer of 1962 U. S. spy planes flying over Cuba photographed Soviet-managed construction work and spotted the first missile on October 14. For seven days Kennedy consulted with advisors, discussing the possible responses. On October 22, Kennedy told the nation about the discovery of the missiles, demanded that the Soviet Union remove the missiles, and declared the waters around Cuba a quarantine zone.
For several tense days Soviet vessels en route to Cuba avoided the quarantine zone, while Khrushchev and Kennedy discussed the issue through diplomatic channels. Khrushchev, realizing his weak military position, sent one of two messages to Kennedy in which he agreed to remove the missiles. The following day, before the United States could respond to the first note a second was sent by Khrushchev to try and negotiate terms. Kennedy responded to the first message and an agreement was met for the Soviet missiles to be dismantled and removed from Cuba. In return Kennedy secretly promised not to invade Cuba and to remove older missiles from Turkey. This was perhaps Kennedy’s greatest moment as president. Many feel that because of Kennedy’s aggression that perhaps WWIII was avoided.
On November 22, 1963, President and Mrs. Kennedy were in Dallas, Texas, trying to win support in a state that Kennedy had barely carried in 1960. On his way to a luncheon in Dallas, Kennedy and his wife sat in an open convertible at the head of a motorcade. Lyndon Johnson was two cars behind the president, and Texas Governor John B. Connally and his wife were sitting with the Kennedy’s. As the motorcade approached an underpass, two shots were fired, one bullet passed through the president’s neck and struck Governor Connally in the back, with the other bullet striking the president in the head. The car sped to nearby Parkland Hospital where at 1:00 PM Kennedy was pronounced dead.
Less than two hours after the shooting, aboard the presidential plane at the Dallas airport, Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as the 36th president of the United States. The bullets that killed Kennedy were fired from a sixth-story window of a nearby warehouse. That afternoon, Lee Harvey Oswald, was arrested in a Dallas movie theater and charged with murder. Two days later, as the suspect was being transferred from one jail to another, Jack Ruby sprang out from a group of reporters and as millions watched on television, fired a revolver into Oswald’s left side. Oswald died in the same hospital to which the President had been taken.
On November 24, the body of President Kennedy was carried on a horse-drawn carriage from the White House to the Rotunda of the Capitol. Hundreds of thousands of people filed past the coffin of the slain president. A state funeral was held the next day where "representatives of 92 nations attended."7 It has been estimated that as many as "1 million people"8 lined the streets of Washington as the funeral procession made its way slowly to Arlington National Cemetery. The grave was marked by an eternal flame lighted by his wife and brothers. Five days after the funeral, President Johnson appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court Earl Warren chairman of a committee to investigate Kennedy’s death. The findings of the commission were announced on September 27, 1964, which stated that investigators had found "no evidence of conspiracy in the assassination."9 Their report concluded that "the shots which killed President Kennedy were fired by Lee Harvey Oswald."10